EEG: What It Can- and Cannot- Tell You About Epilepsy
A normal EEG does not rule out epilepsy
An electroencephalogram, usually shortened to EEG, records electrical activity produced by the brain.
EEG is one of the most useful tests in epilepsy assessment, but it is also one of the most easily misunderstood.
An EEG can:
support a diagnosis of epilepsy
provide clues about seizure type
help identify an epilepsy syndrome
show where certain abnormal electrical patterns appear to arise
and sometimes record a seizure itself.
But an EEG cannot simply answer:
“Does this person have epilepsy — yes or no?”
NICE specifically states that an EEG must not be used to exclude epilepsy.
What does an EEG actually record?
Brain cells communicate partly through electrical activity.
During an EEG, small sensors called electrodes are attached to the scalp.
These electrodes detect tiny electrical signals generated by groups of brain cells.
The signals are recorded and displayed as a series of waveforms that can be examined by a specialist trained in clinical neurophysiology.
The electrodes:
do not send electricity into the brain
do not read thoughts
and do not normally cause pain.
They simply record electrical activity from the scalp.
What can an EEG show?
An EEG may show electrical patterns that are associated with an increased likelihood of epilepsy.
These are commonly called epileptiform discharges or interictal epileptiform discharges when they occur between seizures.
Examples may include:
spikes
sharp waves
spike-and-wave discharges
polyspike-and-wave activity
or characteristic patterns associated with particular epilepsy syndromes.
The exact appearance, location and timing of these abnormalities can give specialists useful information about what type of epilepsy may be present.
What does “interictal” mean?
Ictal means during a seizure.
Interictal means between seizures.
A routine EEG usually does not record an actual seizure.
Instead, specialists often look for electrical abnormalities occurring between seizures that may support an epilepsy diagnosis.
Someone can therefore have an EEG showing epileptiform activity even though they did not visibly have a seizure during the test.
Likewise, someone can have epilepsy and show no epileptiform activity during that particular recording.
Why can someone with epilepsy have a normal EEG?
Because epilepsy does not necessarily produce abnormal electrical activity continuously.
A routine EEG records only a short period of a person's life.
If epileptiform activity does not occur during that period, the recording may appear normal.
Epilepsy Action explains that many people with epilepsy have abnormal electrical activity only intermittently, so a normal result means only that epileptic activity was not detected during that recording.
NICE reached the same conclusion when reviewing the evidence: routine interictal EEG has low sensitivity, meaning many people who genuinely have epilepsy will have a routine EEG that does not show the expected abnormalities.
Therefore:
Normal EEG ≠ no epilepsy.
Can an abnormal EEG prove someone has epilepsy?
Not always.
Certain EEG patterns can strongly support an epilepsy diagnosis, particularly when they fit the person's history and suspected seizure type.
But an unusual EEG result should still be interpreted alongside the clinical history.
A small number of people who have never had epileptic seizures can show unusual EEG abnormalities.
Other medical or neurological conditions may also produce abnormal electrical patterns.
So:
Abnormal EEG ≠ automatically epilepsy.
The strongest diagnosis comes from putting the EEG together with:
what happened during the suspected seizures
eyewitness descriptions
video where available
medical history
examination
imaging
and other investigations.
Epilepsy diagnosis is primarily clinical
EEG supports diagnosis.
It does not replace the story of what actually happened.
NICE recommends taking a detailed history after a first suspected seizure and, where possible, using:
eyewitness descriptions
family or carer accounts
and video footage.
A physical examination should also be performed.
This matters because many conditions can resemble epileptic seizures.
Examples include:
fainting
cardiac rhythm problems
metabolic disturbances
sleep disorders
migraine
movement disorders
and functional/dissociative seizures.
An EEG is one part of separating these possibilities.
Why might an ECG be done as well?
An ECG records electrical activity from the heart.
That is different from an EEG, which records brain activity.
Some heart rhythm problems can cause:
collapse
loss of consciousness
abnormal movements
and apparent seizure-like episodes.
NICE therefore recommends a 12-lead ECG after a first suspected seizure to help identify cardiac conditions that could mimic epilepsy.
When should an EEG be arranged after a first seizure?
If the clinical history suggests an epileptic seizure and epilepsy is suspected, NICE recommends considering a routine awake EEG.
If an EEG is requested after a first seizure, NICE recommends performing it as soon as possible — ideally within 72 hours.
This does not mean an EEG performed later is useless.
It reflects evidence that the chance of finding useful epileptiform abnormalities may be greater when the recording is obtained relatively soon after the seizure.
What happens during a routine EEG?
A routine EEG normally involves electrodes being placed across the scalp according to a standard arrangement.
The person usually lies or sits still while their brain activity is recorded.
A routine recording commonly includes:
periods with eyes open
periods with eyes closed
normal resting recording
hyperventilation where appropriate
and flashing-light stimulation where appropriate.
NICE's 2026 work describing current NHS EEG practice refers to routine awake recordings of approximately 20 to 40 minutes.
The complete appointment usually takes longer because the electrodes need to be fitted and removed.
Why are the electrodes placed in specific positions?
EEG electrodes are not randomly attached.
Standardised positioning allows specialists to compare electrical activity between different regions of the scalp.
This helps them determine whether abnormalities appear:
widespread
symmetrical
predominantly on one side
or concentrated over a particular region.
International standards for routine and sleep EEG have been developed jointly by the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology and the International League Against Epilepsy.
Can an EEG tell which side of the brain seizures come from?
Sometimes it can provide important clues.
In focal epilepsy, epileptiform activity may appear predominantly over one region or one side of the brain.
For example, a report might describe abnormalities as:
left temporal
right temporal
frontal
posterior
or multifocal.
But scalp EEG has limitations.
Electrical signals generated deeper in the brain may be difficult to detect clearly at the scalp.
Some seizure activity can also spread rapidly, making localisation more difficult.
Therefore an EEG finding should be considered alongside MRI, seizure behaviour and other investigations.
Can an EEG tell exactly where a seizure starts?
Sometimes — particularly if an actual seizure is recorded — but not always.
A scalp EEG detects electrical activity only after it has travelled through:
brain tissue
fluid
skull
and scalp.
Very small or deep seizure sources may therefore produce little or no obvious scalp EEG change.
This is one reason someone can have a clinically convincing focal seizure without a clear scalp EEG abnormality.
When precise localisation is needed for epilepsy surgery, much more detailed investigation may be required.
Can an EEG show brain damage?
Not directly.
An EEG measures electrical function.
It does not produce a picture of brain structure.
An MRI or sometimes a CT scan is used to look for structural abnormalities such as:
scars
developmental abnormalities
tumours
vascular lesions
previous injury
or other physical changes.
Epilepsy Action specifically distinguishes EEG from MRI and CT in this way.
Related Information Hub page:
MRI and Epilepsy — coming later
What is hyperventilation during an EEG?
During some routine EEGs, the person may be asked to breathe deeply and regularly for several minutes.
This is called hyperventilation.
It changes carbon-dioxide levels in the blood and can bring out certain EEG abnormalities that might otherwise remain hidden.
Hyperventilation can be particularly useful when certain generalised epilepsies, including absence epilepsy, are suspected.
NICE recommends discussing the benefits and risks of provocative procedures such as hyperventilation before they are performed.
Can hyperventilation provoke a seizure?
There is a small possibility.
That is partly why the procedure is useful diagnostically.
The person is being monitored by trained staff while it takes place.
If hyperventilation is considered inappropriate because of a person's medical circumstances, the clinical team may decide not to perform it.
Consent and individual risk matter.
What is photic stimulation?
Intermittent photic stimulation involves looking towards a flashing light while different flash frequencies are used.
This can identify photosensitivity in susceptible people.
Photosensitivity means that certain flashing or flickering visual patterns can produce epileptiform EEG activity and, less commonly, trigger a seizure.
It is particularly relevant to some generalised epilepsy syndromes.
NICE recommends discussing the benefits and risks before photic stimulation is performed.
Does an abnormal response to flashing lights mean every seizure is photosensitive?
No.
A person may have photosensitive EEG abnormalities without every seizure being triggered by flashing lights.
Likewise, most people with epilepsy are not photosensitive.
The EEG finding needs to be interpreted in the context of the person's actual experiences and epilepsy syndrome.
What happens if the routine EEG is normal?
NICE recommends considering a sleep-deprived EEG if the routine EEG is normal and suspicion of epilepsy remains.
This is because sleep and sleep deprivation can make some epileptiform abnormalities easier to detect.
A normal routine EEG should therefore not necessarily be the end of the investigation.
What is a sleep-deprived EEG?
Before a sleep-deprived EEG, the person is asked to have less sleep than normal.
Instructions vary.
Someone may be asked to:
go to sleep much later
wake much earlier
or occasionally remain awake for most or all of the night.
Being tired makes it easier to record actual sleep during the test.
It can also increase the likelihood of detecting some epileptiform abnormalities.
Why is sleep useful?
Brain electrical activity changes significantly during sleep.
Some epileptiform abnormalities become much more visible during particular sleep stages.
Certain epilepsy syndromes also produce abnormalities predominantly or almost exclusively during sleep.
The ILAE and IFCN include sleep EEG within their international minimum recording standards because sleep can significantly increase diagnostic information.
Does sleep deprivation increase seizure risk?
It can.
Sleep deprivation is a recognised seizure trigger for some people.
The purpose of the test is partly to increase the likelihood of detecting abnormal activity, but that also means the person's seizure risk around the investigation may increase.
Epilepsy Action advises that sleep deprivation can increase the chance of a seizure around the test.
Follow the hospital's instructions carefully, including any advice about:
travelling
driving
medication
and having someone accompany you.
What is a sleep EEG?
A sleep EEG records brain activity while the person sleeps.
This is not necessarily the same as a sleep-deprived EEG.
Sleep may occur naturally, after sleep deprivation, or sometimes after medication intended to help induce sleep.
Sleep EEG can be particularly useful when:
seizures occur mainly during sleep
routine EEG is unrevealing
a particular childhood epilepsy syndrome is suspected
or sleep-related epileptiform activity is being investigated.
Epilepsy Action notes that focal epileptiform abnormalities may also be more visible during sleep in some adults.
What if routine and sleep-deprived EEG are both normal?
If diagnostic uncertainty remains after both tests, NICE recommends considering ambulatory EEG for up to 48 hours.
Longer recording gives the brain more opportunity to produce useful abnormalities.
It also allows EEG activity to be recorded during ordinary activities and sleep.
What is an ambulatory EEG?
An ambulatory EEG uses scalp electrodes connected to a small portable recorder.
Instead of staying beside a large EEG machine, the person can usually return home and continue many normal daily activities.
Recording may continue for:
a day
overnight
or longer depending on the service and clinical question.
The person usually keeps a diary of:
sleep
meals
symptoms
unusual sensations
suspected seizures
and other relevant events.
The EEG can then be compared with the times recorded in the diary.
Why might ambulatory EEG find something a routine EEG missed?
The main advantage is time.
A routine EEG samples only a brief period.
An ambulatory recording samples many more hours, including:
wakefulness
drowsiness
sleep
waking
and normal daily activities.
If epileptiform activity happens only occasionally, a longer recording gives more opportunity to capture it.
However, even a prolonged ambulatory EEG can still be normal in someone with epilepsy.
What is video EEG?
Video EEG records:
the person's behaviour on video, and
their EEG activity at exactly the same time.
This allows specialists to compare what the body is doing with what the brain's electrical activity is doing.
This can be extremely useful when the nature of someone's episodes is uncertain.
What is video telemetry?
Long-term video EEG is often called video telemetry.
The person may be monitored continuously for several days.
It is commonly used when:
seizure type remains uncertain
epilepsy treatment is not working as expected
doctors need to distinguish epileptic seizures from another type of event
or someone is being assessed for epilepsy surgery.
Capturing one of the person's typical episodes can provide far more information than an EEG recorded between events.
Why is recording a typical seizure so useful?
Suppose someone suddenly:
stops responding
stiffens
makes repetitive movements
speaks strangely
or becomes confused.
Without EEG, clinicians can observe the behaviour.
With simultaneous video EEG, they can also examine what the brain's electrical activity was doing at that exact moment.
This can help determine:
whether the event is epileptic
which seizure type may be occurring
where detectable activity appears to begin
and how it spreads.
What if an event happens but the EEG does not show a seizure?
This requires expert interpretation.
A typical clinical event without an obvious scalp EEG seizure pattern can have several explanations.
For example:
the event may not be epileptic
the seizure may originate too deeply or over too small an area for scalp EEG to detect clearly
movement may obscure the recording
or the EEG change may be subtle.
Therefore, “no obvious scalp EEG change” does not always mean “definitely not a seizure.”
The video, seizure description, EEG quality and suspected epilepsy type all matter.
Can video EEG identify functional seizures?
Video EEG can be particularly valuable when doctors need to distinguish epileptic seizures from functional seizures, also called dissociative seizures or functional neurological attacks.
If a person's typical event is recorded without the electrical changes expected for that type of epileptic seizure, and the clinical features fit a functional event, this can help establish the diagnosis.
However, interpretation should be made by clinicians experienced in seizure disorders.
Some people can have both epilepsy and functional seizures, so recording one event type does not necessarily explain every episode a person experiences.
Can medication be reduced during video telemetry?
Sometimes.
During inpatient video telemetry, specialists may decide to reduce or temporarily withdraw antiseizure medication to increase the likelihood of recording seizures.
Epilepsy Action notes that this may be done during hospital video telemetry.
This is performed under specialist supervision because deliberately increasing seizure risk can be dangerous.
Medication should never be reduced at home simply to try to make an EEG more useful unless the specialist team has specifically instructed it.
What are nocturnal or “silent” seizures on EEG?
Some seizures occur during sleep and may be extremely difficult for another person to notice.
They might cause:
brief movements
subtle stiffening
small automatisms
a change in breathing
very short arousals
or little visible movement at all.
An EEG or video EEG may reveal seizure activity that was not recognised clinically.
Epilepsy Action notes that people with suspected sleep seizures may wake with signs such as:
unexplained injuries
incontinence
unusual movements
confusion
or extreme tiredness.
Sleep EEG may be used to investigate these events.
Can an EEG show seizures a person did not know they had?
Yes.
This can happen particularly:
during sleep
during absence seizures
during very brief focal seizures
or when awareness of the seizure itself is impaired.
Video EEG may show an electrical seizure while the visible behaviour is subtle.
Conversely, someone may experience symptoms that feel significant but do not produce a detectable scalp EEG change.
Both situations require careful interpretation.
What are artefacts?
Not every unusual line on an EEG comes from the brain.
EEG is extremely sensitive.
Recordings can be affected by electrical activity from:
eye movements
blinking
facial muscles
chewing
talking
movement
sweating
heartbeat
poor electrode contact
or external electrical equipment.
These unwanted signals are called artefacts.
Part of EEG interpretation involves distinguishing genuine brain activity from artefact.
This is why EEG should be interpreted by appropriately trained specialists rather than by looking at isolated waves without context.
Can someone read their own EEG from a screenshot?
A screenshot may look dramatic but is rarely enough to interpret properly.
EEG interpretation depends on:
many channels recorded simultaneously
electrode positions
sensitivity settings
filters
recording speed
what the person was doing
whether they were awake or asleep
surrounding EEG activity
and the clinical question.
A single unusual-looking waveform does not establish that a seizure occurred.
The formal report and clinical interpretation matter.
What does “epileptiform” mean on an EEG report?
If a report describes activity as epileptiform, it means the electrical pattern has features associated with an increased likelihood of epilepsy.
The report may describe abnormalities as:
focal
multifocal
generalised
lateralised
temporal
frontal
or occurring predominantly during sleep.
The wording helps the neurologist interpret the result alongside the person's clinical history.
It does not mean every epileptiform discharge represents a visible seizure.
Many occur between seizures.
What does “focal slowing” mean?
Slowing is not the same thing as an epileptiform discharge.
Persistent or intermittent slowing over one area may suggest that the underlying brain region is functioning differently.
Possible reasons can include:
a structural abnormality
previous injury
temporary dysfunction
or other neurological conditions.
The significance depends on the pattern and the person's clinical situation.
MRI or other investigation may be needed if a structural explanation is suspected.
What does “generalised spike-and-wave” mean?
Generalised spike-and-wave activity is an EEG pattern associated particularly with genetic generalised epilepsies.
Different syndromes may have characteristic frequencies and patterns.
Examples include:
childhood absence epilepsy
juvenile absence epilepsy
juvenile myoclonic epilepsy
and epilepsy with generalised tonic-clonic seizures alone.
EEG findings can therefore help doctors move beyond simply saying “epilepsy” and identify the actual syndrome.
That matters because different epilepsy syndromes can respond differently to particular medicines.
Does the side shown on EEG always equal the side of the symptoms?
Not necessarily.
Brain control is often crossed.
For example, electrical activity beginning in one hemisphere may produce motor symptoms predominantly on the opposite side of the body.
Seizures can also spread from their point of origin.
This means the side of:
a twitch
stiffening
head turning
weakness
or another visible symptom
cannot simply be matched to one EEG electrode without neurological interpretation.
Can EEG tell whether epilepsy is focal or generalised?
Often it provides important evidence.
A focal EEG abnormality suggests activity arising from a limited brain region.
A generalised pattern appears simultaneously or very rapidly across both sides of the brain in a characteristic distribution.
However, the distinction is not always straightforward.
Focal seizures can spread rapidly and appear widespread.
Generalised epilepsies can sometimes produce asymmetrical EEG features.
This is why seizure history and EEG should be interpreted together.
What is multifocal epileptiform activity?
Multifocal means epileptiform abnormalities appear independently in more than one brain region.
This can have different implications depending on:
age
epilepsy syndrome
underlying brain condition
imaging
and clinical history.
It does not automatically tell doctors how many seizure types someone has or whether surgery is possible.
Further specialist assessment may be needed.
Can EEG help choose epilepsy medicine?
Indirectly, yes.
The EEG may help identify:
seizure type
epilepsy type
or epilepsy syndrome.
Those classifications influence which antiseizure medicines are most appropriate.
For example, some medicines effective for focal seizures can worsen particular generalised seizure types.
Therefore an accurate EEG-supported classification can affect treatment decisions.
NICE also states that unequivocal epileptic activity on EEG is one factor that may support starting antiseizure treatment after a first unprovoked seizure.
Is EEG used to check whether epilepsy medicine is working?
Usually, seizure control is judged primarily by what is happening clinically, not simply by repeating EEGs until they look normal.
Someone can:
remain seizure-free while some epileptiform EEG activity persists
or continue having seizures despite an interictal EEG appearing normal.
Repeat EEG may nevertheless be useful in particular circumstances, depending on:
epilepsy syndrome
seizure changes
treatment decisions
childhood developmental concerns
or specialist assessment.
EEG can be especially important in some childhood epilepsies
Some childhood epilepsy syndromes produce characteristic EEG patterns.
Sleep can be particularly important.
NICE recommends considering sleep EEG in certain children if:
new seizure types develop
or school performance deteriorates,
because some epileptic encephalopathies produce substantially increased epileptiform activity during sleep.
In these situations EEG can provide information about brain activity even when obvious seizures are not being witnessed.
What is invasive EEG?
Most EEGs record through electrodes placed on the scalp.
In a small number of people being evaluated for epilepsy surgery, scalp recordings may not identify the seizure onset area precisely enough.
Specialist centres may then use intracranial EEG, where electrodes are surgically placed:
on the brain surface
or within the brain.
One modern approach is stereo-EEG, often abbreviated SEEG.
Epilepsy Action explains that invasive EEG is generally reserved for complex epilepsy-surgery assessment when non-invasive investigations have not provided enough information.
This is very different from an ordinary diagnostic EEG.
Does having an EEG mean epilepsy surgery is being considered?
No.
Routine EEG is a standard investigation used in the diagnosis and classification of epilepsy.
Only a small proportion of people undergo invasive EEG.
More complex EEG monitoring becomes relevant when:
seizures remain uncontrolled
diagnosis remains uncertain
or epilepsy surgery is being investigated.
What should someone do before an EEG?
Follow the instructions from the EEG department.
These may include:
washing hair beforehand
avoiding hair products
eating normally unless told otherwise
continuing regular medication unless specifically instructed
and following any sleep-deprivation instructions exactly.
Do not independently stop epilepsy medication before an EEG.
If you are unsure whether a medicine should be taken, ask the department or epilepsy team.
Why might someone be asked about medication?
Antiseizure medicine can affect how often epileptiform activity or seizures occur.
However, suddenly withholding treatment can also create serious risk.
Whether medication should be altered depends entirely on:
why the EEG is being performed
the person's seizure history
and the type of monitoring.
Any medication change for EEG purposes should be specialist-directed.
What information should be taken to an EEG or epilepsy appointment?
Useful information includes:
a list of current medicines and doses
seizure diary
dates and times of recent episodes
descriptions from witnesses
videos where safely obtained
known triggers
whether events happen during sleep
and what recovery looks like.
If several different event types occur, describe each separately.
Do not assume they are all necessarily the same seizure type.
Witness video can sometimes be very useful
A safe recording of a typical event can provide important information to a neurologist.
NICE specifically recommends using video footage where possible as part of the specialist assessment after a suspected seizure.
Safety comes first.
Nobody should delay first aid, place someone in danger or concentrate on filming when urgent help is needed.
What if every EEG is normal but the seizures continue?
A series of normal EEGs does not automatically end an epilepsy investigation.
The neurologist may reconsider:
the clinical history
seizure videos
MRI findings
cardiac investigations
sleep disorders
metabolic causes
functional seizures
or other neurological conditions.
Longer EEG monitoring may also be considered.
The important question is not:
“Was the EEG normal?”
It is:
“Does all the available evidence together explain the episodes?”
What if the EEG is abnormal but the person has never had a seizure?
An abnormal EEG should not automatically create an epilepsy diagnosis in someone with no appropriate clinical history.
Epilepsy is fundamentally a disorder characterised by a tendency to have epileptic seizures.
Some people without epilepsy can have EEG abnormalities.
The result therefore needs interpretation by the clinician who requested it.
EEG terminology can sound frightening
Reports may use words such as:
abnormal
epileptiform
sharp
spike
focal
generalised
slowing
asymmetry
paroxysmal
discharge
or encephalopathic.
These are technical descriptions.
They do not automatically mean:
brain damage
severe epilepsy
worsening epilepsy
or permanent deterioration.
Ask the neurologist what the finding means for the individual person, rather than interpreting one technical phrase in isolation.
Questions to ask about an EEG result
Useful questions include:
Was my EEG normal or abnormal?
Did it show epileptiform activity?
Was the abnormality focal or generalised?
Which brain region was involved?
Did anything change during sleep?
Did flashing lights or hyperventilation produce abnormalities?
Does the EEG support a particular epilepsy syndrome?
Does the result fit the seizures that have been witnessed?
Could I still have epilepsy despite a normal result?
Do I need a sleep-deprived or ambulatory EEG?
Would video telemetry provide more information?
Does this result change my treatment?
Do I need MRI or another investigation?
The most important message
An EEG is an important epilepsy test, but it is not a simple epilepsy detector.
A normal EEG does not rule out epilepsy.
An abnormal EEG does not automatically prove epilepsy.
Its real value comes from combining the electrical information with:
the person's history
eyewitness descriptions
video where available
examination
MRI
ECG
and other appropriate investigations.
Routine EEG may be followed by sleep-deprived EEG, ambulatory monitoring or video telemetry when more information is needed.
Longer recordings can reveal abnormalities that a short EEG misses, particularly during sleep.
The most useful question is therefore not:
“Did I pass or fail my EEG?”
It is:
“What does this EEG add to everything else we know about my seizures?”
Sources and further reading
NICE — Epilepsies in children, young people and adults (NG217): Diagnosis and assessment.
Current NICE guidance recommends routine awake EEG when clinical history suggests epilepsy, states explicitly that EEG must not be used to exclude epilepsy, recommends EEG ideally within 72 hours after a first seizure when requested, and describes progression to sleep-deprived and ambulatory EEG where uncertainty remains. Last updated January 2025.
NICE — Rationale and impact for epilepsy diagnosis.
NICE explains that routine interictal EEG has low sensitivity, meaning many people with epilepsy will have a negative routine EEG, while positive epileptiform findings can support diagnosis.
International League Against Epilepsy and International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology — Routine and sleep EEG: Minimum recording standards.
International evidence-based and consensus standards covering routine EEG, sleep EEG, recording methods and activation procedures.
Epilepsy Action — EEG tests for epilepsy.
Detailed UK information on routine, sleep, sleep-deprived, ambulatory, video and invasive EEG, including the limitations of normal and abnormal results.
NICE — Principles of treatment, safety, monitoring and withdrawal.
Current guidance states that unequivocal epileptic activity on EEG is one factor that may support treatment after a first unprovoked seizure.
Information reviewed: September 2026.
This page provides general educational information. EEG findings should be interpreted by appropriately trained healthcare professionals alongside seizure history and other investigations.
